Expectancy Value Theory

   Girls often internalize negative beliefs about their math capabilities, which can lead to disengagement and avoidance of the subject (Fong et al., 2021; Mayerhofer et al., 2024). Expectancy-Value Theory (EVT), developed by Eccles and Wigfield (2002), defines a student’s expectations and values regarding academic success and how these factors influence educational choices (Fong et al., 2021). In their study, Eccles and Wigfield (2024) found that students’ EVT differs by gender and that girls are more likely to conform to their gender-role stereotypes, leading to various beliefs about their ability in STEM. Self-efficacy is a component of EVT; students with higher self-efficacy are more likely to feel confident in their ability to succeed (Bohrnstedt et al., 2024; Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Bohrnstedt et al. (2024) define self-efficacy as “a belief about one’s ability to carry out actions that lead to the attainment of a specified goal” (Bohrnstedt et al., 2024, p. 3), and it predicts student mathematics achievement (Stankov et al., 2012). Alarmingly, female students are less likely to have strong math attitudes and self-efficacy than their male peers, suggesting that gender stereotypes in math negatively affect how female students see themselves (Dang, 2015). 

   Conversely, students who innately demonstrate self-efficacy are often better prepared for mathematical challenges and therefore have higher levels of motivation and engagement (Martin & Rimm-Kaufman, 2015, p. 360). Martin and Rimm-Kaufman (2015) found that “First, students with higher levels of math self-efficacy (relative to other students in their class) reported experiencing greater levels of emotional and social engagement in math class” (p. 369), suggesting that confidence in one's mathematical capabilities is a crucial indicator of student engagement. However, low self-efficacy, which has been found to affect girls more than boys, is associated with higher MA levels; as a result, girls are less engaged and perform worse in mathematics (Bohrnstedt et al., 2024; Schaeffer et al., 2020). Young girls’ mindsets and beliefs about mathematics constitute a gender-specific burden that affects their motivation, leading to lower math competence and achievement (Heyder et al., 2020). Watt et al. (2019) support this claim, finding that boys face lower social costs than girls (who perceive math mastery as riskier) and are therefore more willing to take risks and engage with complex content. Self-efficacy is crucial when considering female mindsets and beliefs, and it also plays a role in avoiding STEM courses and careers.