Expectancy Value Theory

   Educational expectations between parents and students are reciprocal: parental expectations influence a child's academic achievement, and, in turn, the child's academic achievement influences parental expectations (Briley et al., 2014). Parental expectations are defined as “...realistic beliefs or judgments that parents have about their children's future achievement as reflected in course grades, highest level of schooling attained, or college attendance” (Yamamoto & Holloway, 2010, p. 191). Students who know their parents expect high academic achievement are more likely to strive for mathematical proficiency (Wang et al., 2021; Yamamoto & Holloway, 2010). Similarly, teachers' expectations also significantly affect student achievement, demonstrating the positive influence of both parents and teachers on students’ GPAs, course selection, and attainment (Lee et al., 2025; Benner et al., 2021).

   In contrast, low teacher expectations are directly associated with lower academic achievement and a reduced likelihood of graduating from high school (Benner et al., 2021). Bioecological theory supports this notion by explaining that students' perceptions of their abilities directly reflect the mindsets and beliefs of those who closely influence their academic pursuits (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). Expectations precede children’s attitudes, as research shows that parents with growth mindsets tend to raise students who develop skills such as autonomy and self-efficacy and who have overall positive dispositions toward math (Lee et al., 2025).